Antiquities

(aathaar)

The Middle East is often referred to as the “cradle of civilization,” for the
 world’s first settled cultures developed there around 4500 BCE. Since
 then, the region has played host to many great civilizations: some 
indigenous, others brought by conquerors. Among the most prominent
were the Sumerian (3000–2500 BCE), Phoenician (1200–725 BCE), 
Assyrian (900–614 BCE), and Babylonian (626–538 BCE) civilizations 
in Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent; the Old, Middle and New 
Kingdoms (3000–525 BCE) in Egypt; the Sabaean civilization
(1000–100 BCE) in Yemen; and the Nabataean empire (321 BC-AD 106)
in Jordan. The extent of Roman presence in the region is illustrated by 
the Roman ruins that stretch across the Arab world; noteworthy sites 
include Baalbek in Lebanon, Jerash in Jordan, Carthage in Tunisia, and 
Volubilis in Morocco. This illustration was modeled after the ruins in 
Jerash, Jordan.

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Door, gate

(baab)

Doorways and entryways have been important features in Arab architecture
for centuries. The kind of door varies according to the specific structure and
its intended purpose. Outer gates of homes, citadels, and cities are usually
made of iron, while inner doors are of wood (often cedar or mahogany).
Outer gates of city walls—some of which can be found in Aleppo, Cairo,
and Jerusalem—once provided protection to residents inside. In the past,
wooden doors were frequently inlaid with mother of pearl or carved in
geometrical or floral designs. A carved wooden door from Oman inspired the entryway in this illustration.

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Embroidery, needlework

(tatriiz)

The prominence of embroidery in the Arab world goes back at least to the beginning of the 16th century. Arab needlework was influenced by Spanish, Turkish, Balkan, and Berber styles. In addition to clothing, needlework is
used to embellish furnishings such as curtains, cushions, bed covers and
wall hangings. The design in the illustration is based on cross-stitch
designs typical of Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine. Another traditional
form of embroidery is worked in gold or silver thread on a background of
velvet or heavy silk. This style can be found on the kiswa, the covering
on the Ka’ba at Makkah, on which Qur’anic verses are embroidered.

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Dress, robe

(thaub)

Cotton robes are worn by both men and women in the Arab world. The
garment’s cut varies among the different regions according to temperature
and terrain. In hot dry regions, the dress is larger, with wide sleeves that
catch the breeze and deep folds to trap body moisture. In cooler regions,
the dress is frequently more fitted. Most thaubs for women are embellished
with designs, while men’s thaubs are usually unadorned. A knowledgeable
eye can identify the origin of a costume by the style, fabric, thread, stitching,
and design, all of which vary according to region. In many thaubs for
women—such as those in Palestine, Jordan, and the Maghreb—the color
and style of embroidery also reflect a woman’s marital status. Today, in metropolitan areas throughout much of the Arab world, many Arabs wear
Western dress rather than the traditional thaub.

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Earthenware jar

(jarra)

Earthenware containers date back to the earliest civilizations in the region,
and their use has continued until today. The jars are used to keep water
cool and to store grains and beans. When buried in the ground, the jars
protect food against the heat. In the absence of refrigeration, perishables
can be stored in the cool area created underneath a few pottery jugs filled
with water. In some parts of the Arab world, earthenware jars filled with water
are placed outside storefronts, where passersby can quench their thirst.
Besides their functional use, these earthenware jars provide a medium for
artistic expression. Before the clay jars completely harden, they are
sometimes decorated with tools such as rope, knives, or thumb imprints.
A rope was used to decorate the jars shown here.

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Horse

(hisaan)

The Arabian horse has the distinction of being the oldest living breed of
horse. The Arabian horse’s existence was first recorded 3,000 years ago,
although some archaeologists believe that the breed existed as long ago
as 40,000 years. The Arabian was introduced to Europe through Andalusia
and brought to America by bedouins for the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair.
Arabians are known for carrying heavier loads at faster speeds and for longer distances than any other breed, earning them the nickname “drinkers of the
wind.” Arabian horses are also prized for their extraordinary beauty. Arab
tribesmen are largely responsible for preserving the Arabian’s traits through
their careful breeding and recording of bloodlines. Such records were
committed to memory and transmitted orally before the first written records of genealogy were introduced in 1946. The Arabian horse influenced the
development of the thoroughbred. Today, some Arab countries have centers dedicated to the study of the Arabian horse.  Examples include the Egyptian Agricultural Organization Stud, the Jordanian State Stud, and the Riyadh Equestrian Club.

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Handwriting, script

(khatt)

The written Arabic language is one of the world’s most widely used languages.
The Qur‘an, Islam’s holy book, is written in Arabic, and as Islam spread, so
did the use of the Arabic language. The Arabic alphabet has 28 letters,
including three long vowels. Short vowel sounds are indicated with diacritical
marks above and below the letters. Arabic is written from right to left with
most letters connecting to others. The script is flexible and can be altered for purposes of calligraphy.

There are two main forms of calligraphy: the kufic script characterized by
angular, geometric lines, and the rounded cursive versions of the nashk
script. Calligraphy achieved new heights with the coming of Islam in the
seventh century CE. Muslims consider the Qur’an to be the literal word of
God, and as such it should be written with precision and grace. In addition,
Islam forbids religious iconography, thus contributing to the rise of calligraphy
as a favored art form. The Prophet Muhammad encouraged the development
of calligraphy as an art form when he said, “He who writes bismillah (‘In the
 name of God’) beautifully obtains innumerable blessings.”

 
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A dalla is a coffeepot with a handle and a long, curved spout. This style is
typical of the Arabian Peninsula. Elsewhere in the Arab world, coffeepots
 look different and are called by other names. The word dalla is used
primarily in the Gulf region, whereas the term ‘ibriiq is used in many other
parts of the Arab world.

Traditionally, Arabs are known for their hospitality, a characteristic that
developed centuries ago among the bedouin in the Arabian Peninsula
where hospitality once meant the difference between life and death. When
guests would arrive, the host spread a carpet for them before the fire and
served coffee into small cups with no handles. Bedouins today represent
only a small percentage —about two percent—of the Arab population, but
 the coffee ritual continues to be widely practiced by Arabs throughout the
region. Coffee itself was first cultivated in the Arab world, the sole source
of the product until the end of the seventeenth century. The origin of the
term ‘mocha’ is the ancient Yemeni port of el-Mukha, from which Yemeni
coffee was exported.

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Corn

(thura)

While corn is not grown extensively in the Arab world, many Arabs have
come to enjoy this imported vegetable. A popular way of preparing corn is
to cook it in its husk over coals. It is then wrapped in foil or paper and
eaten as a snack. Many street vendors in villages and cities sell corn
prepared this way.

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Written forms of communication have long held an important place in the
Arab world. An elaborate postal system was developed during the Abbasid
Empire (eighth through mid-thirteenth centuries CE). Over nine hundred
post offices were established during this period, and mail delivery relied
upon horses, camels, and carrier pigeons.

The word risaala also refers to the message that God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad through the Archangel Gabriel. Muslims refer to the Prophet Muhammad as rasuul Allah, or “messenger of God.”  The Qur‘an, the holy
book of Islam, is the written word of this revelation, or message.

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Like calligraphy, the development of other decorative art forms in Islamic
culture resulted in part from Islam’s prohibition of iconography. Two major
design categories are popular in the Arab world. The first is geometric
design, which is characterized by interlocking, symmetrical lines and angles,
such as those depicted in the illustration. This type of motif is commonly
used in North Africa. The second style is known as arabesque and is
characterized by a curved floral motif. It originated in Persia and reached
great heights during the Fatimid Dynasty in Egypt. The mosques of Ibn
Tulun and al-Hakim in Cairo display examples of arabesque designs.
Zakhaarif is applied in many mediums, including ceramics, glassware,
wood, fabrics, stone, tile, and paper.

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In the past, carpets were widely used in the Arab world for purely
practical purposes such as sitting and sleeping. The skill of carpet
weavers turned this household object into a medium for artistic
expression manifest in the elaborate weaving of fine silks and wool
that earned oriental carpets worldwide admiration. Muslims also use
carpets during prayer. In Islam, it is preferable to perform one’s prayers
on a clean surface. Many Muslims keep small carpets on hand especially
for this purpose. The root of the word sajjaada (?-?-?) means to bow down
in worship. The word for mosque—masjid—comes from the same root and
means ‘place of worship.’

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Shawurma is among the most popular of all snacks in the Arab world.
Most often made with charcoal-broiled mutton, it is cut into thin slices
and arranged on a vertical skewer from which individual servings are
shaved (like the Greek gyro). A popular way to serve shawurma is in
sandwich form, rolled into a flat round of bread and garnished with finely
chopped tomatoes, parsley, lettuce, onions, and tahini (sesame) sauce.
Street vendors selling this popular snack are a frequent sight in most
Arab cities.

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Many Arab countries border a large body of water: the Mediterranean Sea,
the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf (known in the Arab world as the Arabian
Gulf), or the Red Sea. As a result, fish is an important staple in the diet of
many Arabs. Before the discovery of oil in the Gulf, fishing was one of the
main industries there. In the past several decades, many Gulf countries
have devoted attention to improving their fishing industries. Widespread developments include the modernization of traditional wooden fishing boats,
and the replacement of hand-crafted fishing nets with a manufactured nets
that are both stronger and more easily repaired at sea. Some popular fish
in the Gulf region are sardines, bluefish, mackerel, shark, and tuna. Shrimp, lobsters, and oysters are also found in Gulf waters. Fish common to the Mediterranean Sea include sardines and mackerel.

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Traditionally, many bedouin women in the Middle East have braided their
hair and decorated it with colorful bands called laffayef made from local
handspun wool, or with woolen tassels. The use of braids dates as far back
as the Sumerian period. The woman in a statue from the Sumerian Period,
found outside the Ishtar Temple at Mari, wears braids coiled around her head
as well as a large headdress.

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Usually referred to as simply taawula—literally “table” in Arabic—backgammon
is a popular game in the Middle East. It is also known as “tric trac” (Lebanon)
and “takht-e-nard” (Iran). The rules and method of the game vary depending on
the country. Taawula boards typical of the Arab world are hinged wooden boxes that are opened and laid flat for playing. The boxes are often crafted of inlaid
wood and mother of pearl. Archaeological evidence suggests that taawula was played over 5,000 years ago in the Sumerian city of Ur, located in what is now southern Iraq, where archeological digs have turned up a table very similar in appearance to the backgammon board.

In a more esoteric vein, the backgammon board itself symbolizes the globe,
and specific parts of the board represent day and night, the four seasons
(or four directions), the months of the year, the days of the month, and the
hours of the day.

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The zabii is a species of gazelle (gazella dorcus) that has existed since
antiquity and is considered to be the “classic” gazelle. It lives in climates
of dry savanna, semi-desert, and desert and can be found from the North
African Atlantic coast to western parts of Saudi Arabia. The zabii was still
common around the end of the nineteenth century, but its numbers have
since dropped considerably. The name of the emirate Abu Dhabi literally
means “father of the gazelle” in Arabic, suggesting that the species at one
time may have inhabited what is now the UAE.

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Forerunner of the English lute, the `oud is a short-necked, fretless musical instrument that until recently was the most widely used instrument in the
Arab world. Cave paintings in Egypt and Mesopotamia depict oud-like
instruments. In ancient times, the oud had a belly made from animal skin.
The wooden-bellied oud was imported to Makkah from Iraq in the late
sixth century CE. The Crusaders first introduced the oud to Europe during
the period CE 1109–1289, when the Arab world was at the forefront of
academic scholarship and the arts. During this period, students from
Europe came to study at Arab universities and were exposed to the oud.
The instrument was brought back to Europe via Spain, where it became
known as laud (pronounced la-ood) in Spanish. The English slightly altered
the name, resulting in the term “lute.”

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Sunset is one of the five required times of prayer in Islam. These prayers
are at sunrise (fajr), noon (zuhr), afternoon (‘asr), sunset (maghrib), and
night (‘ashaa). The root from which the word ghuroob is formed (?-?-?)
means “to go west.”   The western-most area of the Arab world is northwest
Africa, known in Arabic as the maghrib, meaning “place of sunset” or “west.”  Sunset is a particularly important time of day during the Islamic month of Ramadan. During this month, Muslims fast from sunrise to sunset. At sunset,
the fast is broken and the feasting begins.

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Lanterns hang above the streets throughout the Islamic month of Ramadan.
During this month, able-bodied Muslims are required to fast from sunrise
until sunset. Every evening there is a breaking of the fast, when entire
communities celebrate and feast late into the night. The faanoos is
connected with this tradition and is a symbol of Ramadan. These lanterns
are usually made with brass and glass, or with colorful paper.

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Fortresses can be found all over the Arab world some built by local sultans
or generals, others by conquerors. Some still standing include al-Hazm in
Oman, which was built in 1708 by Sultan bin Seif al-Ya’ariba; Rustaq—also
in Oman—built over a long period starting from the Sasanian period in
CE 212;  Qal`at al-Rabad in Jordan, built in 1184 by Saladin’s general,
Izzadin Usama, as a defense against the Crusaders; Crac des Chevaliers,
built by the Crusaders in Syria; and Qal`at al-Burak, built by the Ottoman
Turks in Jordan.

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The Middle East gave birth to the Christian church and was the place of
its earliest growth. Today, about five percent of Arabs are Christians. Many
Old and New Testament events are related in the Qur’an, and Muslims
respect Christians and Jews as ahl al-kitab, or “people of the book.” As
ahl al-kitab, Christians are given protected status under Muslim rule, and
in countries where Islamic law applies, Christians follow their own religious
laws for family matters. Islam considers the Christian Messiah, Jesus, to
 be an important prophet. Christian denominations in the Arab world include Catholic, Anglican, Protestant, Assyrian, Maronite, Eastern Orthodox, and
Oriental Orthodox (including Armenian Apostolic, Coptic, and Syrian Orthodox).

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The pearling industry in Gulf countries such as Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, and
the United Arab Emirates was once among the most profitable industries in
the region. It helped establish the region along world trade routes, especially
in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when pearling in these countries reached its height. Since the development of the cultured pearl in Japan in the 1930s and the discovery of oil in the Gulf in the 1940s and ‘50s, the pearling industry in the Gulf has declined substantially. In some Arab countries, satellites and scuba gear are used in the pearling industry, while in other countries, these technologies are banned in an effort to preserve the pearl beds.

Before the advent of modern equipment, pearling required tremendous physical endurance. Pearling teams consisted of a captain who was often also the owner of the boat and who knew the best pearling banks, divers, rope tenders, and apprentices. The crew worked, ate, and slept on the deck. Divers looked for pearls by holding their breath under water and collecting as many oysters as possible. They would descend to depths of thirty to forty feet about eight times in a fifteen minute period and then rest. This routine continued from sunrise to sunset. The rope-tender was very important to the diver. He was responsible for pulling the diver up from the bottom. If he was too slow, the diver could drown; and if he was too fast, the diver would get “the bends.”  Pearl dealers traveled around the pearl beds in boats buying pearls from the captains and then selling them to other merchants.

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The mosque is the Muslim place of worship. The first mosque can be traced
back to the days of the Prophet Muhammad in the seventh century CE. In
Islam, the mosque serves not only as a place for communal prayer, but also
as a central meeting place and locus of social activity. Islam was born in the
Arab world and spread quickly throughout the region and beyond. Today, approximately 80% of the world’s Muslims live outside the Arab world.
Mosques usually reflect local art and architecture and therefore vary widely
in appearance, although most contain the same basic structural elements.
Most mosques have a minaret from which the call to prayer is issued. A
mihrab, or niche in the wall, indicates the direction of the city of Makkah.
Muslims face Makkah when they pray because this is where the Ka’ba is
located. The Ka’ba is believed to have been built by the Prophet Abraham
(Ibrahim in Arabic) and his son Ishmael. God told the Prophet Abraham to
take his wife Hagar and his son Ishmael from Palestine to a new land. After traveling for many days, they arrived in the valley of Bacca, which would
later be called Makkah. Abraham left his wife and young son in the dry valley. There was no water nearby, and Hagar soon left Ishmael to search for water.
When she returned unsuccessful, she found a spring bubbling out of the
earth near where Ishmael sat. Many years later, God told Abraham and
Ishmael to build a Ka’ba—or holy shrine—near the spring. After they
finished the Ka’ba, God told Abraham to call mankind to make a pilgrimage
to His holy house to pray. The pilgrimage is known as the hajj.

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The date palm tree is believed to have originated in the Middle East and is
probably the oldest cultivated tree. A date palm motif was used in Assyrian
and Pharaonic architecture and its importance was praised by the poets
and scribes of these ancient civilizations. The fruit itself provides an important staple, while the trunk and leaves are used to make furniture and construct
houses. There are more than 400 different types of dates. The best fruits
are stuffed with almonds or other nuts. In emulation of the Prophet Muhammad, Muslims often break their Ramadan fast with dates.

Palm trees require maximum moisture and heat, a condition that prevails
in oases. Some well-known oases include Marrakesh in Morocco, Siwa in
Egypt, al-Hasa in Saudi Arabia, and al-Kufra in Libya.

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The first pyramid was designed by the builder Imhotep as a burial place for
King Zoser in 2600 BCE. Overlooking Memphis in Egypt, Imhotep’s step
pyramid was the first large monument made entirely from stone. About
100 years later, King Khufu built the Great Pyramid. It stands 481 feet high
and is the tallest of the three pyramids at Giza, Egypt.

The ancient Egyptians considered the pyramid to be a symbol of perfection.
The burial chambers within the pyramid lie directly under its apex at ground
level, while different chambers are located within the structure for various
other purposes. The engineers who built them are still praised today for
their precision in constructing these monuments without the benefit of
cranes or pulleys.

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The rose is believed to have been first cultivated in ancient Persian gardens,
and it gained widespread popularity in the eighth and ninth centuries CE.
The Persian city of Jur was noted for its abundance of red roses, and Jurian rosewater was traded from Morocco to China. Roses were also used in
ancient Egypt. They were dissolved in hot fat in order to produce pomades
that the Egyptians shaped into cones and placed on their hair; as body heat melted the fat, the fragrant oil would trickle down the face and neck. Today, rosewater is a popular ingredient in many Arab sweets. Most of the world’s
rose extract is produced in Morocco.

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The hand pictured here is stained with a dye called henna. Henna is made
from various trees, shrubs, and crushed dried berries blended to create a reddish-brown substance. Staining the nails, skin, and hair with henna is
a popular traditional form of adornment in all parts of the Middle East. Henna
is primarily used during times of celebration such as religious holidays and weddings. Henna Night (laylat al-hinnaa’) is a ritual performed for the bride
before her wedding. It is an occasion for girls and women to celebrate the
marriage of the bride and prepare her for her wedding day. Henna designs
vary from region to region. The design in the illustration is based on motifs
used in Morocco.

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